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Maps have always been an important part of human life. The oldest known maps in existence today were created around 2300 BC in ancient Babylonia on clay tablets. The Egyptians created surveying instruments and the Greeks created the astrolabe. Paper maps were created as early as 150 AD. Today, cartographers continue to make maps. Of course, most new maps do not depict a newly discovered or explored land as they did in the past. Maps are still vital to society and continue to improve over time. In addition to technology, cartographic research has aided in better maps. Cartographic research is important because it provides for a map that best displays the earth in the abstract form of a map to the complex human mind.
Research done in cartography involved problems such as acquiring accurate geographic data, designing ways to symbolize it, and finding ways to mechanically prepare and duplicate the map . Methodology, such as generalization, map comparison, and cartographic design, was also studied (Robinson and Petchenik).
A major area of research in cartography has been communicating to the map user the message the map makers intended to send. Jon Kimerling writes in 1989, "Judging by the refereed articles devoted to cartography, cartographic communication is undoubtedly the dominant research thrust of the last two decades. . ." Cartographers began to research people and maps to see if their maps were effective. These studies were often called cognitive research. Cognitive research involved subjects such as short and long term memory; perception; and recognition and recall. "Cartographic research of a purely cognitive nature has dealt primarily with the "visual mental image" formed when viewing a map" (Kimerling). Other psychophysical and experimental research was conducted as well. An example would include eye movement studies. Eye movement studies tried to determine how the eye moved so cartographers could use this information to design a better map.
Some cartographers still research basic map design, such as color selection and symbolization, but much of the current cartographic research focuses on making better maps with the technology now available. Computers have made it possible to create more exciting multi-media maps. Cartographers try to find the best ways of utilizing technology to display visual information effectively and accurately.
Cartographic Design
One interesting research direction will be presented in the next issue (Vol. 87, No. 1) of the Annals of the Association of American Geographers with Judy Olson and Cynthia Brewer's An Evaluation of Color Selections to Accommodate Map Users with Color-Vision Impairments. Although important, this research direction may not be as common as the following.
Cartographic Visualization and Communication
Much of the research being conducted at the present time involves the terms "cartographic visualization" and "cartographic communication." Although many cartographers are in disagreement or are unsure what cartographic visualization entails, this seems to be a popular research direction. Alan Maceachren, of The Pennsylvania State University, wrote a book entitled Visualization in Modern Cartography (1994). In chapter one, Setting the Agenda , he discusses visualization as "a renewed way of looking at one application of cartography (as a research tool) that balances attention between visual communication (where cartographers have put much of their energy during the past two or three decades) and visual thinking (to which cartographers of the first half of the century devoted considerable attention)." It is difficult to separate cartographic communication and cartographic visualization. It seems visualization would be created with effective communication. Often visualization involves the x, y, and z coordinates. Essentially, a computer program creates a three dimensional model of an area. A cartographer must decide what he wants to communicate in his visualization. Although visualization could not occur without communication, cartographic communication could occur without visualization. Visualization is important, however, because it eliminates the problem of putting a three dimensional area onto a two dimensional surface. Visualization "has been interpreted broadly as a method of computing that incorporates data collection, organization, modeling, and representation. Visualization is based on the human ability to impose order and identify patterns" (Peterson).
Michael Peterson, of the University of Nebraska at Omaha, wrote an article entitled Between Reality and Abstraction: Non Temporal Applications of Cartographic Animation, in which he discusses animation as "one of the defining characteristics of cartographic visualization, which may itself be viewed as a further manifestation of a general research direction in cartographic communication." He goes on to explore the variables of animation and the categories of non-temporal animation. He defines visualization as "an attempt to better utilize the mental imaging capabilities of the human mind and the dynamic aspects of visualization."
Animation and Interaction
Another topic of research includes cartographic animation. Animated maps make it possible to view events and phenomena that could not be shown using static maps. A popular application of animation is temporal events. Animation makes it possible to show the movement of a hurricane towards the state of Florida, or the movement of a particular race or age group in a city over time. Non temporal applications include "animations of data classification, data generalization, and a series of related variables from a single time period" (Peterson).
Animation is either frame based or cast based. The illusion of movement is created by displaying the frames in rapid succession. One problem is that an animation takes up a large amount of memory in a computer. Research continues to find ways of creating animation that takes up less memory.
Interaction is important because it allows the map viewer to make decisions about such factors as scale, features displayed, and color selection. By being able to create the map according to his needs and specifications, the map becomes more useful to the user. It may also allow the user to view additional information, or even pictures, about an area. For example, an interactive map may be of a state. By clicking with the mouse on a city, the map zooms in to a city map showing streets and tourist attractions. After clicking on a tourist attraction, the computer displays a photo of the attraction, as well as directions, and hours of operations. Another example would include a map that allows the user to decide what features to show on the map by clicking on an icon. Features could include rivers, streets, highways, restaurants, parks, churches, or schools.
One problem that animation and interaction share is distributing the resulting maps to the public. Both require specific computer software that most people do not own. The internet helps to solve this problem. By using a web browser and its plug ins, animated and interactive maps are more easily distributed and less expensive. Without the web, animation and interactive maps would not be nearly as popular.
Web Based Research
As computer technology and the world wide web continue to grow, they provide a new outlet for cartography. At the University of California-Santa Barbara and at its satellite site University of Colorado-Boulder, Barbara Buttenfield and Michael Goodchild are working on the Alexandria Digital Library project. ADL's objectives include "providing access to the services of a map and imagery library over the Internet, and of merging maps and images into the library information mainstream." The ADL project raised some interesting research questions. Many of these questions include the search (query) capabilities of the internet in relation to maps and the problem of storage and retrieval of spatial information. Another problem is that HTML lacks mechanisms for presenting vector data.
Bin Li, of University of Miami, focuses on Web-based Distributed Geographic Information Systems ( Issues in Designing Distributed Geographic Information Systems). Although my paper focuses on cartographic research directions, much of Li's work on GISs also apply to computer cartography. Li discusses design considerations, current approaches to developing Web-based distributed GIS, and the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
With such a large volume of maps and spatial information being put on the web, research in this direction seems very important and likely to continue. The many new discoveries and conclusions will prompt additional research questions.
The strong emphasis placed upon web based maps, brings up many possible research questions. One interesting question is Web based maps versus paper maps: which are the most helpful aids to learning place names?
Rationale
Many articles report the alarming news that people today do not know their geography. Many individuals cannot point out the city that they live in on a map. Some cannot point out countries or continents either.
I propose that paper maps have become boring to many students. With today's emphasis on virtual reality, computer games, and other technological advances, people do not want to use paper maps. People may use an atlas to travel from one place to another, but will not use paper maps for any other purpose. In addition, it may be easier to access a map by using a search engine and keywords on the web, than by trying to find a paper map at a store or library.
Web based maps offer more excitement and flexibility. The user can zoom in and manipulate the maps, even change colors and other details. This hands on approach could stimulate learning. Web based maps are also more readily available. I believe web based maps would encourage students to learn geography. The interactivity would help the user to remember locations because they can actually go to a place to get more details with a simple click of the mouse. I would hypothesize that web based maps can help people to become more geographically literate than paper maps.
Methodology
To conduct this research, first, select the paper maps to be used. Map one would be a large area such as the east coast of the United States with very little detail (for example 10 states). Maps 2-11 would be individual maps of each state including important cities and physical features. Next, a web site would be developed. The web site would contain Map one. It would be possible to zoom in to get more details. It would also be possible to click on a state to get a map of the state (parallel to maps 2-11). The students could select map colors and decide what features would be displayed.
A map quiz would be developed. Possible questions would include the labeling and identification of states, cities, and physical features.
A sample group of high school students would be selected. They would be given the map quiz and their scores recorded. The sample group would be split into two groups. One group would be given a set of paper maps to study for a designated period of time. The second group would be given the web site to study for the same designated period of time. The map quiz would be given again and scores recorded. It would be determined which group's scores improved the most. This procedure would be repeated with many sample groups to get more accurate results.
Expected Results
Students who studied web-based maps should show the greatest improvement in score. The hands-on interactivity should make memorizing easier. The web map would be more exciting and would hold the students' attentions longer. The zoom in feature is easier and more effective than having to shuffle through piles of paper to find a larger scale map.
Cartography has and probably always will be used as a component or tool in geographic research. Maps are used to show distributions and locations of phenomena. People sometimes fail to realize that there are research opportunities within cartography itself. It is important to continue to research how to best display our earth in the abstract form of maps. Cartography has experienced many different research directions throughout its history. Some of the initial research directions are still considered valid, while others are not considered as important. Cartographic visualization, communication, and web-based mapping seem to be the most relevant and popular current research direction.
Cartography: Guide to Library Resources
Alexandria Digital Library
Chapter 1: Maps and the Internet
Cartography and GIS homepage at UNO
Buttenfield, B. & Goodchild, M. The Alexandria Digital Library Project: Distributed Library Services for Spatially Referenced Data.
Kimerling, A. Cartography in Geography in America. 1989.
Li, B. Issues in Designing Distributed Geographic Information Systems.
MacEachren, A. Visualization in Modern Cartography. 1994.
Peterson, M. Between Reality and Abstraction: Non-Temporal Applications of Cartographic Animation.
Peterson, M. Cartography and the Internet: Implications for Modern Geography.
Peterson, M. Spatial Visualization through Cartographic Animation: Theory and Practice.
Robinson, A. & Petchenik, B. The Nature of Maps: Essays toward Understanding Maps and Mapping. 1976.
Web Sites (unknown authors):
The Tcl/Tk Model for Cartographic Visualization